A Scarce Pattern of Imperial German 121st infantry Officers Sword XIII Royal Wurtemberg Corps

Bronze hilt with folding guard. Overall very nice condition and beautiful regimental markings to hilt and scabbard. Made by Gebruder Wayersberg of Solingen. Scabbard bottom section lacking. Potentially used by a Wurttemberg officer who knew or fought with another Wurttemberg officer at the same time, Erwin Rommel. On mobilization in 1914, the corps was subordinated to the 5th Army and saw action on the Western Front. It was transferred to the 6th Army during the Race to the Sea. In October 1914, the corps headquarters formed Corps Fabeck, which by the end of the month had become a provisional army group, commanding XV Corps, II Bavarian Corps and Corps Urach. In November, the XIII Army Corps was transferred from the 6th Army to the 9th Army on the Eastern Front. By 1916, the corps had returned to the Western Front and was subordinated to the 4th Army under Army Group Crown Prince Rupprecht. From April 1917 to March 1918, the corps commanded Group Caudry, another provisional command. In September 1918, it took over command of Group Ebene under Army Group Duke Albrecht of Württemberg, and commanded Group Ebene until war's end.

It was still in existence at the end of the war in Armee-Abteilung C, Heeresgruppe Gallwitz on the Western Front.

Württemberg mountain battalion

In 1915 a Württemberg mountain battalion was also formed, on drafts from the Württemberg line regiments, which became a part of the Alpenkorps division in 1917. This was the unit in which the young Erwin Rommel distinguished himself on the Romanian and Italian fronts, winning the Pour le Mérite (Imperial German equivalent of the Victoria Cross) at the Batlle of the Isonzo in 1917. Erwin Rommel was undoubtedly one of the finest generals of the Second World War, his strategic mind and patient approach led his men to victory after victory early in the war. But, while his fame and glory came as a General and Field Marshal, it was as a Lieutenant in the First World War that he earned his greatest honor.

Rommel started out the war in command of a reserve artillery company but immediately transferred to the 124th Wurtemberg Infantry regiment. By the middle of August 1914, he was in contact with the French, and showed his daring and genius in combat. The II Battalion, to which Rommel’s platoon was attached, halted at Bleid, a small French farming town. They sent out scouting parties, testing the various hedgerows and farms for French resistance.

Taking just three men from his platoon Rommel advanced to the edge of the town, where they found 15 French soldiers taking a nervous breakfast in the dense fog. Rather than retrieving his full platoon and assaulting, Rommel gave the order to open fire, and this four man party scattered the French troops, killing 5 of them. After receiving a stiff bout of rifle fire in response, he and his men returned to their platoon, then advanced with the rest of the battalion.  read more

Code: 23897

A Most Scarce Strip of 10 Heer EM/NCO Overseas M43 Cap Cockade Insignia

Made of a a machine embroidered cotton, this insignia is in very good un-issued condition! The colours are still vibrant! Features tri-colour national emblem. Perfect for any collection or display of German WW2 Very rare to find an un-issued strip of any form of German Bevo uniform insignia. A most rare discovery  read more

Code: 23761

An Amazing & Most Rare Un-Issued Fully Intact Strip of 18 Third Reich Arm Badges of the German Railways Armed Forces Traffic Directorate (WVD), Brussels Division

Arm badge worn by personnel of the German Railways Armed Forces Traffic Directorate (WVD), Brussels Division. A machine woven, right facing eagle with outstretched wings and a wreathed, mobile swastika in its talons, positioned above the arching script, "WVD Brüssel." All of the threads are bright golden-yellow, against a half-moon. The insignia indicates service with the "Brüssel" division of the "Wehrmachtverkehrsdirektion.". Still on their original un-cut factory roll backing material.

WVD = Wehrmachtverkehrsdirektion

These badges were introduced in September 1941 superseding the German Railway cuff-titles, themselves only introduces some seven months previously, in February 1941. They were worn on the left upper arm of the uniform and usually cut or folded to produce a pointed or curved lower edge. The badges combined the German national eagle emblem above the initials of the relevant Railway Directorate, of which there were four (WVD, HVD, RBD & RVD), plus the specific Railway Division, which was usually based on large and important marshalling yards or railway areas. This branch of the Wehrmacht under the Nazi regime is responsible for controlling the operation of the national railways . It was created during the reorganization in 1937 of the Deutsche Reichsbahn into four directories.

It moved to Paris on June 21 , 1940 and the first contacts between SNCF and WVD took place on June 26 , 1940. The headquarters of the WVD was first in 36 of Avenue Kléber, then at 29,rue de Berri, in the 8 th arrondissement, near the Champs Elysées. It is the vice-president of the direction of the regional Reichsbahn of Hanover, Hans Münzer, who was named supreme commander (Kommandeur) of this authority of control of the French railways.

In August 1940, the operation of the network in occupied areas , outside Alsace-Lorraine, is transferred as a whole to the WVD located in Paris. A WVD is also installed in Brussels, which has jurisdiction over part of the North of France.

The SNCF retained ownership of the equipment which remained to it after the German requisitions, its trains were driven by French railway workers, but it was placed under the surveillance of WVD which subjected the personnel to German war laws and imposed the presence of 6500 German railway workers in stations, depots and operating sites responsible for ensuring the proper functioning of the company on site. Its goal is then to restart the French railway services in order to optimize its transport time, allow its use by the German forces, contribute to the German economy and among other things to continue to provide support to the ' invasion of North Africa . For these purposes, prisoners of war who have the skills of railway workers are released. It will then transit via French railways no less than 45 million tonnes of minerals between Italy and Germany Individual examples now sell for around £65 to £95 each  read more

Code: 23785

A Pair Of French, Chassepot Rifle Sword Bayonets. 1870's

Very Good Chassepot Rifle Sword Bayonets. Stunning examples, with very good steel and brass, They could look super displayed just as we show them. The hilts have been polished as could the blades.
Its inventor was, Antoine Alphonse Chassepot, and it became the French service weapon in 1866. It was first used at the battlefield at Mentana, November 1867, where it inflicted severe losses on Garibaldi's troops. The event was reported at the French Parliament: "Les Chassepots ont fait merveille!", {The Chassepots did marvelous execution !} In the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) it proved greatly superior to the German Dreyse needle gun, outranging it by 2 to 1. Although it was a smaller caliber but the chassepot ammunition had more gunpowder and thus faster muzzle velocity. The Chassepots were responsible for most of the Prussian and other German casualties during the conflict. This is the most widely copied of all the sword bayonets. Many countries - including the United States, Egypt, Belgium, and Argentina - have manufactured or used very similar bayonets. The French model was designed to fit on the French Model 1866 Chassepot Rifled Infantry Musket (the musket was revolutionary in itself). It was manufactured from 1866 to about 1874 and was replaced by the French Model 1874 "Gras" Bayonet.
The bayonets are brass-hilted The crossguard is iron (steel) and has a screw-type tightening arrangement on the muzzle-ring. The lower quillon is a hooked "blade-breaker" type.
The blade is steel, single-edged, fullered (both sides), with a re-curved or "yataghan-shape." The blades marked on the back-edge (opposite the cutting edge) with the arsenal, month, and year of manufacture; this is done in engraved cursive fashion
Arsenals encountered may be such as Chatellerault, Mutzig, St. Etienne, Paris-Oudry, Tulle, and perhaps Steyr (not confirmed on the 1866). The French wars during the life-span of this bayonet were: French Intervention in Mexico (1861-1867);
Franco-Prussian War (July 19, 1870 - May 10, 1871)
French Indo-China (1873-1874, 1882-1883);
Sino-French War (1883-1885);
Madagascar Wars (1883-1885, 1895);
1st Mandingo-French War (1883-1886);
1st Dahomeyan-French War (1889-1990);
2nd Dahomeyan-French War (1892-1894);
Franco-Siamese War of (1893)
2nd Mandingo-French War (1894-1895);
Conquest of Chad (1897-1914);
3rd Mandingo-French War (1898);
Moroccan War (1907-1912);
The Wadai War (1909-1911);
World War I (early).

These bayonets were widely copied and used by many countries - including the United States, Belgium, and Germany. Many of the actual French-marked bayonets can be found with German manufactured blades. It is believed some of these were used during the American Civil War when many European arsenals were emptied of their surplus arms.
These bayonets are the French Model 1866 "Chassepot" Bayonet.
The crossguard are iron (steel) and with a "cock's comb" muzzle-ring finial. The lower quillon is a hooked "blade-breaker" type.
The blade is steel, single-edged, fullered (both sides), with a re-curved or "yataghan-shape." One blade is marked on the back-edge (opposite the cutting edge) with the arsenal, month, and year of manufacture; this is done in engraved cursive fashion. No scabbards  read more

Code: 24843

A Most Rare Bronze Age 'Celtic' Ring Dagger Knife Around 2500 Years Old

A mid-European cast bronze knife. The blade is formed as a curved casting, thickening towards the outside of the curve, and with an edge to the inside. The handle has a depression on each side with a ring pommel typical of the ancient celts.

From a collection of antiquities, swords daggers, and rings, that just arrived this week, in early July, many pieces sold for the part benefit of the Westminster Abbey fund, and the Metropolitan Museum fund

the ancient Celtic tribes are far too often overlooked in favour of Romans and Vikings and Anglo-Saxons, their stories stripped away to Boudicca, the Iceni and failed revolt.

Yet the reality was rather more complex, with the ultimately victorious Romans deliberately misrepresenting the Celts as noble savages in order to provide a contrast with “the idea of Rome as a disciplined, ordered, civilising presence”. History might well be written by the victors

The Romans seem to have used the term “Celt” very similarly to how the Greeks used it. They applied the term to a large collection of tribes covering huge portions of western Europe. All the Gallic tribes — the tribes of Gaul — were called Celts by the Romans. We clearly see this in Julius Caesar’s De Bello Gallico (1.1):



“All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own language are called Celts, in ours Gauls, the third.”

But beyond just using the term “Celts” to refer to the Gallic tribes, other Roman writings show that they also used the term to refer to some of the inhabitants of Iberia. For example, Strabo (3.4.5) refers to Celts in that region who became the Celtiberians and the Berones. Many other tribes in Iberia were also considered to be Celtic. In other words, we see that the Romans considered the Celts to cover several large portions of Western Europe. This is consistent with Greek description of the Celts being the single most notable people to the west.
It is important to note that the material culture of the Celtiberians was very different from the material culture of the Gallic Celts. This being so, it is evident that archaeology cannot determine which nation was or was not Celtic. It is evidently not the style of artwork or design of houses or type of pottery that determines whether one is or is not a Celt. Regarding genetics, there does not appear to be any evidence of large-scale migration from Gaul to Iberia. Yet, that does not stop the Celts of Iberia from being considered Celts, either in ancient or modern sources.

On the other hand, the genetics of the population of England is known to be primarily made up of genes from the pre-Saxon inhabitants. Yet despite that, no one would call the English a “Brythonic” nation. So it does not seem very useful to use genetics as the main criterion for determining whether a nation was or was not Celtic.
Therefore, using language as the main basis for determining that ancient populations of Europe does seem to be the most useful method, even if it is not perfect. On this basis, it is very reasonable indeed to refer to the Britons as “Celts”.
Part of the proceeds of this piece were to benefit the Acquisition Fund of the Arms and Armor department, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Overall 11 inches long, blade 6 3/4 inches  read more

Code: 24841

Archaic Zhou Dynasty Bronze Halberd or ‘Ge’ Circa 5th Century BC the Period of the Great Military Doctrine 'The Art of War' by General Sun-Tzu

From a collection of ancient Chinese weapons we recently acquired including three 'Ge'. This is the very type of original ancient ceremonial halbard, defined by the ancient Chinese as a dagger axe 'Ge' and exactly the type as used by the warriors serving under the world renowned General Sun Tzu, in the Kingdom of Wu, who is thought by many to be the finest general, philosopher and military tactician who ever lived. His 2500 year old book on the methods of warfare, tactics and psychology are still taught and highly revered in practically every officer training college throughout the world.

In excavated condition, cast in one piece, slightly curved terminal blade of flattened-diamond section, pierced along a basal flange with three slots, and a hole with fabulous areas of crystallized malachite, blue/green patina.

We also show in the gallery a schematic of how this 'Ge' halbard would have been mounted 2500 odd years ago on its long haft, and used by a charioteer warrior, there is also one depicted being carried in a painting that we show in the gallery being used in a chariot charge in the Zhou dynasty.

This is a superb original ancient piece from one of the great eras of Chinese history, it is unsigned but near identical to another that was signed and inscribed with details that have now been fully translated, deciphered and a few years ago shown at Sothebys New York estimated to a sale value of $300,000. Its research details are fully listed below, and it is photographed within our gallery for the viewers comparison. Naturally, our un-inscribed, but still, very rare original version, from the same era and place, is a much more affordable fraction of this price

The signed and named Sotheby's of New York example that we show in the gallery, was formerly made for its original warrior owner, Qu Shutuo of Chu, it is from the same period and in similar condition as ours. We reference it's description below, and it is photographed within the gallery, it is finely cast with the elongated yuan divided by a raised ridge in the middle of each side and extending downward to form the hu, inscribed to one side with eight characters reading Chu Qu Shutuo, Qu X zhisun, all bordered by sharply finished edges, the end pierced with three vertically arranged chuan (apertures), the nei with a further rectangular chuan and decorated with hook motifs, inscribed to one side with seven characters reading Chuwang zhi yuanyou, wang zhong, and the other side with five characters reading yu fou zhi X sheng, the surface patinated to a dark silver tone with light malachite encrustation
An Exhibition of Ancient Chinese Ritual Bronzes. Loaned by C.T. Loo & Co., The Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, 1940, pl. XXXIII.
New Orleans Museum of Art, New Orleans, March - June 1948.

This inscribed bronze halberd blade, although typical in form, is uniquely important as its inscription serves as a critical primary source that reveals the name of its original owner: Qu Shutuo of Chu. The only known close counterpart to this blade is a damaged bronze halberd blade, missing the yuan, and inscribed on the hu with seven characters, which can be generally translated to ‘for the auspicious use of Qu Shutuo of Chu’. That halberd is now in the collection of the Hunan Provincial Museum, Hunan, and published in Wu Zhenfeng, Shangzhou qingtongqi mingwen ji tuxiang jicheng Compendium of inscriptions and images of bronzes from Shang and Zhou dynasties, vol. 32, Shanghai, 2012, no. 17048

The remaining thirteen inscriptions can be translated as: 'Qu Shutuo of Chu, Qu X's grandson, yuanyou of the King of Chu'. Based on the inscription, the owner of this blade can be identified as such.

See for reference; The Junkunc Collection: Arts of Ancient China / Sotheby's New York
Lot 111

We also show in the gallery a photo of another similar halberd from a museum exhibition, of a Chinese ancient king bodyguard’s halberd gilt pole mounts for his personal charioteer

This is one of a stunning collection of original archaic bronze age weaponry we have just acquired. Many are near identical to other similar examples held in the Metropolitan in New York, the British royal collection, and such as the Hunan Provincial Museum, Hunan, China. As with all our items, every piece is accompanied by a certificate of authenticity. Approx 8.5 inches across.
 read more

Code: 24341

Another Original Collection of Ancient Weapons of Antiquity Arrives This Week! Once More, All Manner of Singularly Fine & The Rarest of Intriguing Historical Pieces Recently Added, and To Be Added, Every Day

Recently we have acquired and added all manner of interesting artefacts, both ancient and vintage: Including, an ancient Imperial roman Gladiator's ring 1st century AD, an Imperial Roman Equestris Legion Centurion's seal ring engraved with horse mounted combat. A gold and bronze ancient Chinese crossbow mount, an antique Aztec form sacrificial knife, a stunning Baker Rifle, an Ancient Greek or Spartan senior ranked warrior's ‘stooping horse’ seal ring, around 2600 years old, Ancient Roman Kingdom period {500 bc} centurion armilla, from the earliest era just after Romulus and Remus, a 1700 to 1800 year old Roman Gladiators ring, realistically engraved with a lion attacking a horse in the arena, a superb 1798 ‘Baker’ British rifle’s officer’s rifle, several US Civil War revolvers including Colt Army and Remingtons, a Roman Republic Period status rings and seal rings, Viking warriors bronze pieces, one of the most beautiful American frontier Plains Rifle we have seen now sold, a Native American Chiefs rifle, the same as was used by Chief Sitting Bull at the Little Big Horn, a Remington Rifle captured by a Coldstream Guard at Tel el Kabir {also now sold} a Trafalgar period Royal Naval incendiary cannon ball, an incredibly rare Draken head form Viking ‘magic, staff pommel, A Seiðstafr, The Staff of Power, used by a Viking shaman, plus one of the most amazing Viking Berserker warriors neck torc’s we have ever seen, still wearable condition and a great size, several wondrous Japanese katanas, a very rare type of Zulu War period, assegai spear-knopkerrie combination weapon, a type we have only seen twice before in over 50 years, also, lots, lots more.

Also just recently added, a set of ancient Viking prisoner and slave shackles with lock casing, a fabulous US army contract musket used from the Alamo, through the Mexican American War and also the US Civil War, a crossbow bolt recovered from Agincourt, and a light dragoon pistol of Waterloo.. Also, recently added; a Napoleonic Wars era 60th Rifle Regt. Jäger Rifle, Circa 1800, used by the German rifle volunteers of the British Army. Fine antiquities, as we mentioned last week, have arrived on Monday, including a very fine Viking warriors sword from the siege of Paris era, a 15th century iron handgonne, the very earliest form of hand held gun powder gun from the 1400’s. A ‘ballock dagger’ from the period of King Richard IIIrd, and the Wars of the Roses. A pure gold ancient Roman intaglio carved garnet gemstone seal ring, depicting a profile carving, possibly of Emperor Antoninus Pius, the fourth of the five good emperors, or a similar highest ranking Patrician of Rome, plus, a masterpiece of 23 carat hammered sheet gold, a now assembled ‘Wreath of Conquest’, the head adornment worn by the ancient victors of the games, conquerors and their queens of Greece & Macedon, in the later first millennium B.C. and thus emulated by all the ceasers and emperors of Rome, their laurel wreath of victory, the ultimate symbol of Roman republican and imperial victory, rule and power. This was originally acquired for a famous British ‘Barrister at the Temple’ and antiquities collector in the 1960’s. Plus, numerous other wonders of antiquity, including a silver Roman patrician or legates gemstone seal ring of a Roman intaglio of the Roman mythical beast, a Gryllos. The hybrid being is composed of Silenus head, an equine protome, a ram head chewing an ear, rooster legs and tail.. 1st-2nd century A.D. A gryllos, or composite of human and animal parts,
Grylloi, derived from the Italic word grillo ("freak") and the Latin gryllus ("caricature"), were popular subjects for the ancient Romans. Artists reportedly enjoyed creating these fantastic creatures with all combinations of parts, although certain combinations seemed to be more popular than others. While undoubtedly extremely amusing to the Romans, grylloi served a more serious purpose as well; they were thought to be talismans that acted as protection against the evil eye. Their strangeness was said to "attract the evil eye and thus lessens its force against its victims."

For a related example of an ancient Roman Gryllo ring, see accession number 41.160.655 in the Metropolitan Museum of Art's collection of Greek and Roman Art. Also, Ref: Richter, Gisela M.A., Catalogue of Engraved Gems: Greek, Etruscan, Roman, New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art (1956), p. 114.  read more

Code: 24771

A Superb Ancient Chinese Warring States Period 480-222bc Gold & Bronze Chariot Crossbow Mount in Gold with Tiger Head Finial

Being bronze overlaid with gold, with a stunning tiger head finial, this is not the crossbow fitting of a mere officer, but likely of a young Chinese prince, or certainly a very high ranking noble in the chariot ranks of an army.

The history of the chariot and the development of the crossbow in ancient China are interrelated. The chariot is considered the world’s first war machine. As early as the Warring States period, the Chinese attempted to mount the crossbow on the chariot like a machine gun on a modern scout car. Excavation of ancient Chinese chariots has confirmed the descriptions of them in the earliest historical texts.

For the ancient Chinese philosopher, the chariot was the supreme symbol of success. It’s light weight and speed remained the wonder of ancient China. The effective commander was compared to the crossbow. Sun Tsu, in The Art of War, argued that the momentum of one really skilled in war is irresistible, because his overwhelming attack is precisely determined. His ability to strike exactly when required resembles a drawn crossbow, for he is quick as the release of the trigger.

The most significant advantage of the crossbow over the composite bow was the longer range. To be a cross bowman was an important military position in the Han period. However, it was not unusual for captive crossbowmen to be executed upon capture by the opposing army, such was the dread of the weapon and its power.

This exceptional example contains the decorative elements of a status symbol as well as the strength to be used as a deadly tool of war. The sensuous curves of the gilded handle taper into stylized dragon finials that were used to hold the taut bowstring in place. In our opinion, the style, craftsmanship and subject matter of this of gilded bronze crossbow handle indicate a Warring States dynastic date.

Fittings of this type have been excavated in pairs in association with chariots, and their function has long been a research topic of scholars. A pair of silver-inlaid bronze crossbow fittings were discovered from a Warring States tomb in Luoyang, Henan province, published in Luoyang Museum, 'The Chariot Pit Found at Chung-chou-lu', Kaogu , no . 3, 1974, p. 174, fig. 1. According to the archeological report, this pair of fittings were unearthed in front of the wooden shaft of a crossbow, near the left side of a chariot. Based on this finding, the report theorized that they were fitted to the front of a crossbow shaft to support the bow, and the upcurved terminals were meant to be the aiming mechanism. See a reconstruction drawing illustrated in Luoyang Museum, ibid., p. 177, fig. 7.

Other scholars have developed a different theory and propose that these fittings in fact functioned as crossbow supports on a chariot. Both fittings were attached horizontally to the front left panel of a chariot, adjacent to the occupants. The crossbow was placed facing down, with its bow resting on the curved shafts and its handle positioned obliquely upward, ready at hand for a quick draw.

The present fitting is notable for its bird-head terminal, which appears to be rare among extant examples. Related examples include: a silver-inlaid crossbow fitting, also with a bird-head terminal, in the Avery Brundage Collection, published in René-Yvon Lefebvre d'Argencé, Ancient Chinese Bronzes in the Avery Brundage Collection , Berkeley, 1966, pl. XLIX, fig. B. Compare also a pair of gold and silver-inlaid crossbow fittings, with a serpent-head terminal, included in the exhibition Chinese Art of the Warring States Period. Change and Continuity, 480-222 BC , Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, 1982, cat. no. 26; another pair published in Chinese Gold und Silver. Die Sammling Pierre Uldry, Rietberg Museum, Zürich, 1994, cat. no. 28a; a single fitting from the Ernest Erickson Foundation,  read more

Code: 24837

A Truly Exceptional & Rare 15-16th Century Italian Renaissance Sfondagiaco Eared Dagger, Named From The Protruding Twin ‘Ears’ of the Pommel

An original and rare dagger used by Princes, Dukes and Kings, capable of perforating chainmail and sliding between metal armour plates. An exceptionally rare and important 'Ear-Dagger', from 15th century Venice, Italy. With a traditional form brass hilt, finely engraved, with a pair of ear pommels, in the form of two simply stunning full relief masks of horned goats, backed with clam shell decoration. Double edged graduating blade. What has been described the most valuable dagger in the world was another, most similar 'Ear Dagger', from the same era the 15th century. It was from the Nasrid dynasty in Spain and it sold in Sotheby's Auction house nine years ago for an incredible $6 million dollars. However that example was decorated with Islamic decoration in gold. Ear Daggers are considered the most important contribution to the Nasrid panoply of arms and armour. Ear Daggers probably originated from North Africa, although ancient Asiatic versions existed from 1200 bc. They were used in Spain during the 15th and 16th centuries, and also introduced to Italy and Christian Europe in the 15th century. Daggers of this type were once extremely fashionable among great and powerful nobles, princes and kings, and there exists a portrait of the young King Edward VI of England, now in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle, clutching an Ear Dagger at his waist. Deriving its name from the striking design of the hilt pommel, the Ear Dagger (dague oreilles in French and alla Levantina in Italian) comprises two flattened, embossed or conical discs which resemble ears, issuing from either side of the grip a. Only a handful of comparable examples of the Nasrid daggers exist, and mainly in museum collections. Original 15th century ear daggers are only generally to be found in the finest national museums such as the Louvre, the British Royal Collection, the Metropolitan Museum, Fifteenth-century Italy was unlike any other place in Europe. It was divided into independent city-states, each with a different form of government. Florence, where the Italian Renaissance began, was an independent republic. It was also a banking and commercial capital and, after London and Constantinople, the third-largest city in Europe. Wealthy Florentines flaunted their money and power by becoming patrons, or supporters, of artists and intellectuals. In this way, the city became the cultural centre of Europe, and of the Renaissance. Italian Wars, (1494-1559) series of violent wars for control of Italy. Fought largely by France and Spain but involving much of Europe, they resulted in the Spanish Habsburgs dominating Italy and shifted power from Italy to north-western Europe. The wars began with the invasion of Italy by the French king Charles VIII in 1494. He took Naples, but an alliance between Maximilian I, Spain, and the pope drove him out of Italy. In 1499 Louis XII invaded Italy and took Milan, Genoa, and Naples, but he was driven out of Naples in 1503 by Spain under Ferdinand V. Pope Julius II organized the League of Cambrai (1508) to attack Venice, then organized the Holy League (1511) to drive Louis out of Milan. In 1515 Francis I was victorious at the Battle of Marignano, and in 1516 a peace was concluded by which France held onto Milan and Spain kept Naples. Fighting began in 1521 between Emperor Charles V and Francis I. Francis was captured and forced to sign the Treaty of Madrid (1526), by which he renounced all claims in Italy, but, once freed, he repudiated the treaty and formed a new alliance with Henry VIII of England, Pope Clement VII, Venice, and Florence. Charles sacked Rome in 1527 and forced the pope to come to terms, and Francis gave up all claims to Italy in the Treaty of Cambrai (1529). By the Peace of Cateau-Cambr?sis (1559), the wars finally ended. 16 inches long overall, blade 11 inches.  read more

Code: 22159

A Beautiful, Impressed Twin Head Profile Roman Oil lamp 1st to 2nd Century, Imperial Period

Clay with impressed twin busts of bearded men back to back. Footed base. Oil lamps are ubiquitous at archaeological sites across the Mediterranean region. They were a crucial part of life in many cultures. Practically speaking, they were a source of portable artificial light, much like a candle or modern torch or flashlight. They were also important in sacred settings. They were frequently used in ceremonies, given as votive offerings, or placed in burial chambers. Age of the Roman Emperors
Augustus’ rule restored morale in Rome after a century of discord and corruption and ushered in the famous pax Romana–two full centuries of peace and prosperity. He instituted various social reforms, won numerous military victories and allowed Roman literature, art, architecture and religion to flourish. Augustus ruled for 56 years, supported by his great army and by a growing cult of devotion to the emperor. When he died, the Senate elevated Augustus to the status of a god, beginning a long-running tradition of deification for popular emperors.

Augustus’ dynasty included the unpopular Tiberius (14-37 A.D.), the bloodthirsty and unstable Caligula (37-41) and Claudius (41-54), who was best remembered for his army’s conquest of Britain. The line ended with Nero (54-68), whose excesses drained the Roman treasury and led to his downfall and eventual suicide. Four emperors took the throne in the tumultuous year after Nero’s death; the fourth, Vespasian (69-79), and his successors, Titus and Domitian, were known as the Flavians; they attempted to temper the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate authority and promote public welfare. Titus (79-81) earned his people’s devotion with his handling of recovery efforts after the infamous eruption of Vesuvius, which destroyed the towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii.


Richard Lassels, an expatriate Roman Catholic priest, first used the phrase “Grand Tour” in his 1670 book Voyage to Italy, published posthumously in Paris in 1670. In its introduction, Lassels listed four areas in which travel furnished "an accomplished, consummate traveler" with opportunities to experience first hand the intellectual, the social, the ethical, and the political life of the Continent.

The English gentry of the 17th century believed that what a person knew came from the physical stimuli to which he or she has been exposed. Thus, being on-site and seeing famous works of art and history was an all important part of the Grand Tour. So most Grand Tourists spent the majority of their time visiting museums and historic sites.

Once young men began embarking on these journeys, additional guidebooks and tour guides began to appear to meet the needs of the 20-something male and female travelers and their tutors traveling a standard European itinerary. They carried letters of reference and introduction with them as they departed from southern England, enabling them to access money and invitations along the way.

With nearly unlimited funds, aristocratic connections and months or years to roam, these wealthy young tourists commissioned paintings, perfected their language skills and mingled with the upper crust of the Continent.

The wealthy believed the primary value of the Grand Tour lay in the exposure both to classical antiquity and the Renaissance, and to the aristocratic and fashionably polite society of the European continent. In addition, it provided the only opportunity to view specific works of art, and possibly the only chance to hear certain music. A Grand Tour could last from several months to several years. The youthful Grand Tourists usually traveled in the company of a Cicerone, a knowledgeable guide or tutor.

The ‘Grand Tour’ era of classical acquisitions from history existed up to around the 1850’s, and extended around the whole of Europe, Egypt, the Ottoman Empire, and the Holy Land.  read more

Code: 23747